History of the International System
A. Introduction
- Through time the international system has undergone considerable change
and evolution. The city states that were characteristic of ancient Greece,
the feudal principalities that defined Europe in the Middle Ages, and the
empires that have existed throughout recorded history (both Eastern and Western)
have largely been replaced by the nation-states as the dominant actors within
the international arena.
- Of course, this is a process that has changed over time, as the power relationships
between the various states have vacillated over the past several hundred years.
The Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Ottoman, Spanish, Portuguese, English, Dutch
and French Empires have all gone the way of the dodo.
- The changes that have occurred have not come at an even pace, rather we
have seen the evolution of the international system occur in fits and starts,
with the pace rapidly accelerating over the past century.
- Origins of the modern state system began to take shape in the 1600s, two
trends that have persisted throughout our history became very evident –
first of all the trend toward disintegration, where various entities seek
independence, which we have seen in the collapse of empires throughout history
to the present quests for autonomy. Secondly, the contrary trend toward integration,
where the various small states seek to merge together, either for economic
or security reasons.
- Anyway, in the 1600’s the Thirty Years War ended with the Treaty of
Westphalia, which recognized the independence of Holland and the Various German
Principalities, protestant all, from the Holy Roman Empire (mention the fact
that it was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire). Holy Roman Empire was
actually divided into two parts at this time – the Hapsburg’s
in Central Europe, and the Spanish.
- Movement toward the end of absolutism and the increased secularization of
society. Something that began in the Protestant countries and would spread
to the catholic states over the next couple of centuries. Division between
the church and state. Part and parcel of the Protestant reformation.
- Authority shifted from the church to the nation state, development usually
credited to the Treaty (1648). Corresponding developments of Sovereignty and
the notion of the world as anarchic. At this time, these notions were largely
restricted to Western Europe, but as we shall see, they spread to the remainder
of the world during the 19th and 20th centuries.
- During the 18th and 19th centuries, several developments occurred that fundamentally
shifted the foundations of power within the states of Europe. Mention the
roles of Hobbes and Locke in the development of the social contract. Idea
that the government was created by the people (out of either a desire for
protection, or to ensure their rights, depending on which of the theorists
you accept) rather than through divine intervention.
- Beginnings of the end of feudalism (explain the concept) and the movement
toward popular sovereignty). Important elements in this process included the
French and American revolutions, the expansion of trade, etc. Beginnings of
industrialization. General point is that the rule of the nobles was coming
to an end, and this would have enormous relevance for the states of Europe
and for the international system as a whole.
- Development of, at least quasi democratic, systems of government, also changed
the complexion of the international system – the masses now had a greater
stake in society and we saw such things as the introduction of universal conscription
in the formation of armies (Napoleon), which would prove to change the course
of warfare. Also related to this change was the development of the concept
of national self-determination (ability of a people within a given territory
to choose their own system of governance). A concept that would be rather
sketchy and largely restricted to Western Europe until this century, but one
that would set the foundations for future development.
- You might well notice that so far, at least, the discussion has been largely
confined to Western Europe. There is a very good reason for this inherent
bias, through the scientific advancements made during the time of the enlightenment
(15th. 16th and 17th Centuries), the Europeans acquired a technological superiority
that would become pronounced during the industrial revolution of the 19th
and 20th centuries. This enabled countries such as Spain and Portugal first,
and then Britain, Holland, et al to range far afield and establish colonies
throughout the Americas, Asia, Africa, OZ, NZ, etc.
- As such the international system which first was confined to Western Europe,
and spread to the rest of the globe over the past three centuries was based
largely along the lines of the system established through the Treaty of Westphalia
and had a profoundly European flavor.
B. The Multipolarity of the !7th , 18th and 19th Centuries
- Existence of the European Empires.
- Continental Powers such as Germany (after the 1870s), Austro-Hungarian Empire,
France, potential of Russia, emergence of the United States in the latter
half of the 19th Century. Number of world powers, with never ending series
of alliances.
- Perfidious Albion, Attitude of the United States toward these never ending
series of European squabbles.
- Notion of Balance of Power and the British idea of maintaining such a balance
on the European continent. This led them to oppose Spain, France, Hitler,
Russia, etc. Explain how this fits into overall alliance theory which assumes
that the state will seek to ally itself with the weaker coalition.
C. Rapid Change of the 20th Century
- WWI and the collapse of Ottoman and Austro Hungarian empires, emergence
of the US and Russians as external players that would be very influential
on the World Stage. Though the US was largely pursuing an isolationist policy
and the Soviet Union was initially largely a pariah state. (explain the concept
and why Germany deviated from this pattern).
- Also began to see rapid technological change during this time.
- Development of the means of mass killings, through the poison gas of WWI,
the air campaigns of WWII, the development of nuclear weapons at the close
of this war, and the improvements in delivery systems that have taken place
since the end of WWII.
- Rise of the Soviet Union as a continental power, created some of the conditions
that allowed Hitler to emerge (military co-operation that allowed the Germans
to circumvent the Treaty of Versailles), and the fear that the Europeans had
of the Soviet Union (explain the potential that others had historically seen
in Russia). Led many to believe that Hitler served the purpose of offsetting
the Soviet threat.
- Rise of Japan in Asia. Apart from the United States, this was the first
major non-European power to emerge since the industrial revolution. Japanese
attempted to play on this during WWII, when they attempted to persuade the
lands that they lands that they were seeking to conquer that they were simply
freeing them from the yoke of the colonialism and that they were creating
an organization under which all could develop, and that this would occur outside
of European control (Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere).
- Actually, the Japanese had imperial ambitions at a time when such thoughts
were considered impolite, but their efforts, as well as the feelings they
elicited are revealing of the period.
- WWII and the end of the European empires. Rise of native nationalism and
the general exhaustion of the British and the French.
.D. The Post-War World
- Rise of the Bi-polar world that would characterize the international system
until the late 1980s.
- Two Blocs NATO (1949) and Warsaw Treaty Organization (1955)
- Containment (1949 Foreign Affairs Article by George Kennan.
- Perimeter and Strong Point. Explain each
- Role of the Developing World
- Difficulties within the alliances – France and China
- Nixon, Détente, and Triangular Diplomacy
- Earlier Co-Operation and NTBT (1962) and NPT (1967).
- Brushfires of Vietnam and Afghanistan.
- The Carter Doctrine
- The Reagan Doctrine.
E. Collapse of the Soviet Union and a Uni-polar Moment.